How Do We Do Sociology? (Sociological Research Methods)

Sociology Research Model

  1. Theory V.S. Research:

    • Theory - Definition:

      1. A systematic explanation for the observed facts that relate to a particular aspect of life.

      2. General propositions about the relationship between two or more concepts (variable). $$ A\ \xrightarrow[]{\text{ impact }}\ B $$

    • Empirical research:

      1. Definition:

        Using systematically gathered data to prove a theory.

      2. Sociologists conduct research - gather data about real people - to determine if theories are true depictions and predictions of reality.

    • Method:

      The way we gather data for empirical research.

      Note: Your theory and your method must connect to each other.

  2. The Sociology Research Model:

    • Develop a Research Question: Select topic \& Define problem:

      Research Question (RQ): The relationship between two or more concepts or variables. (How does A affect B? )

    • Theory: Review theoretical literature:

      1. What theories have been used to address this research question in the past?
      2. Choose specific theory (or theories) you want to test.

    • Hypothesis:

      A hypothesis is a statement of what you expect to find based on the theory. A hypothesis predicts a relationship between two or more concepts.

    • Empirical test: The heart of a sociological research

      1. Choose a Method (will be discussed later)
      2. Collect the data

    • Results: What did I find?

      1. Analyze results
      2. Present your findings - summarizing key points, and illustrating the results with:
        • How do my findings tie into my hypotheses?
        • How do my findings fit with previous research?
        • What might be desirable further research?

Different Social Research Method

Survey Research

  1. Survey - Definition

    In survey research, sociologists collect data through asking people questions. They set questions, followed by a list of responses, in a survey. Most data from surveys are \textbf{quantitative} (numeric).

    Example: a Likert Scale

    ​ "One a scale of 1 to 5, ..."

  2. Importance things to consider when setting or conducting a survey research:

    • Types of survey:

      1. Self-administered questionnaires (such as via email)
      2. Phone surveys
      3. In-person surveys (such as an interview)

    • Population:

      1. Define the group you want to study
      2. Often dependent on your research questions and past literatures.

    • Sampling:

      1. How sample chosen is extremely important for results

      2. Sample should \textbf{represent} the entire Population

      3. Probability sampling:

        In simplest form, each person in the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the study.

    • Question wording:

      1. Form, wording, and context of questions are important for accurate results.
      2. Complex issues need multiple questions.

  3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Research:

    • Pros:
      1. Best way of learning about large populations.
      2. Data can be representative of the large population (with good sampling and response rate)
      3. Standardization of data
      4. Economy - cost
      5. Time
    • Cons:
      1. Poorly worded questions yield poor data.
      2. Questions can be somewhat artificial (or superficial).
      3. Data can be potentially superficial.
      4. Difficult to gain a full sense of social processes in their natural settings.

Qualitative Research (Field Research)

  1. Definition:

    • Qualitative Research

      Systematic, often long-term (around 1 to 10 years), observation of social phenomena in natural settings.

    • Most often, we use qualitative research for topics that are complex and not easy to assess using surveys.

  2. Data are qualitative - Non-numerical

    • Data collected in text form (not numerical scales)
    • The text from notes and interviews are coded and organized around themes.
    • Then they are systematically analyzed for patterns
    • Summaries are usually non-numerical (although one may count how many people mentioned particular themes).

  3. Observation as a type of Qualitative Research:

    • Definition:

      Observe a group of people or a certain event.

    • Data are collected through:

      • Field journal
      • Interviews

      Different Types of Questions Asked: Interviews use open-ended questions, whereas surveys ask close-ended questions.

    • Types of Observation:

      1. Direct observation:

        • Researcher observes a social group as an outsider.
        • Does not become part of the group in any way.
        • Usually no influence on group dynamics.

      2. Participant Observation:

        • Researcher goes beyond mere observation to participate in the group they are studying.
        • Potential for influencing the group.

  4. In-Depth Interviews as a type of Qualitative Research:

    • Usually a part of observation studies.
    • Can also be done as a separate method.
    • Explore a topic at a more complex level.
    • Use when you want depth and diversity of views.
    • Interviewer has very general questions and has the respondent talk at length.
    • Potential for interviewer bias.
  5. Advantages of Qualitative Research:
    • Able to study nuances of attitudes and behaviors.
    • Able to study whole group - defining social structure of group.
    • More depth and better understanding of what is studied.
    • Can be inexpensive.
  6. Disadvantages of Qualitative Research:
    • Time-intensive
    • Potential for subjectivity and bias.
    • Conclusions are regarded as suggestive rather than definitive.
    • Smaller sample - less generalizability to larger populations.

Experiment

  1. This is the most rigorous controllable of the methods.

  2. You define a situation you want to test and then create that situation in a lab.

  3. Groups in Experiments:

    Experimental group: exposed to test factor.

    Control group: identical in terms of types of individuals, but not exposed to test factor.

  4. Advantages of Experiments:

    • Control over variables.
    • Can test specific influences over a specific situation.

  5. Disadvantages of Experiments:

    • Artificial environment: how do you know lab settings will be the same as in real life?
    • Limited in scope
    • Ethical concerns - Moral concerns of human subject experiments (This has been addressed, by and large, through Institutional Review Boards (IRBs))

Example: Milgram's Experiment

  • Introduction:
    1. Psychological experiment in early 1960s.
    2. Conducted variations with different groups/samples.
    3. Slightly different from most experiments today - no control group.
  • Purpose:
    1. Involved observing people's willingness to harm others when following orders.
    2. Wanted to see threshold for when people would take personal responsibility and disobey superior.

  • Why do people obey authority figures?

    1. Assume their authority figures.
    2. Fear reprimand/anticipate reward.
    3. Pass responsibility on to someone else ("just following orders")
    4. etc. (look at social context for answers...)

  • Effect on participants:

    • Through a later survey, 83% said they were glad they had participated.
    • Yet, many personally experienced problems during the experiment.
    • Some felt shame; others justified their behavior.

  • Critiques of method:

    • Its psychological effects on the participants.
    • Deception of the participants.

Ethics in Research

  1. These studies like Milgram's experiment has led to:
    • Codes of ethics to protect human subjects
    • Institutional Review Boards (IRRs)
  2. A note on peer review

Causation vs. Correlation

  1. Definitions:

    • Correlation: A relationship between two variables.

    • Causation: One variable causes another.

  2. Element of time - which came first

  3. Intervening - or third - variable

Case Study: Bad Feminist by Roxane Gay

  • Why read this article (as it is not sociological research)?
    • Gay emphasizes the importance of cultural awareness and developing cross-cultural knowledge and skills.
    • She wants us to pay attention - critically and carefully - to the world around us.
    • She also articulates the importance of grace - wherein people are allowed to make mistakes, learn, and evolve.
    • It is an educational approach to life.
    • It is not an approach wherein we imagine we know everything already and attack other who "don't get it."
    • To a certain degree, she is also exploring "imperfection."
  • What is this essay about?
    • Gay confronts the reductive nature of feminism and the stereotypes it produces.
    • She also addresses her own reservations towards embracing feminism itself.
    • One thing not in the essay (but she does take up elsewhere) is that feminism is also a social movement.
  • Exercise:
    • She points to Judith Butler to articulate the ways in which we all "perform" our gender.
    • Judith Butler: American Philosopher and gender theorist.
    • Is there a "right" way to be a woman? Or a "right" way to be a man?
  • What is sociological about feminism?
    • Sociology often explores the unequal distribution of power and resources, feminist sociology studies power in its relation to gender.
    • Feminist scholars study a range of topics, including sexual orientation, race, economic status, and nationality.
    • At the core of feminist sociology is the idea that, in most societies, women have been systematically oppressed and that men have been historically dominant. (This is referred to as patriarchy.)
    • All of these categories - including 'feminist' - are being controlled by stereotypes and judgments.
  • Gay on Categories:
    • "We are categorized and labeled from the moment we come into this world by gender, race, size, hair color, eye color, and so forth."
    • "Again, we see this fear of categorization, this fear of being forced into a box that cannot quite accommodate a woman properly." [and, a man ... and other gender categories ...]
  • Gay's critique of many white feminists
    • Not interested in the issues unique to women of color - having to work against a different set of stereotypes ("angry black woman', etc.); are oftentimes dismissive.
    • Worried that a recognition of differences among feminists will lead to divisiveness.
    • Their argument that black women need to do the work of making feminist organizations more inclusive.
    • Appropriation of material (ideas, etc.)
    • Gay notes that there are problems with feminism - it is not perfect: There are problems with all social movements, and as they expand, they are often characterized by divisiveness.

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